The history of Russian painting begins with Kievan Rus. True, like many other phenomena, painting did not become an original Russian achievement. The appearance of painting in Rus' is associated with the name of Prince Vladimir and Byzantium. Along with Christianity, the Russian prince brought painting traditions to Russia. The first works of fine art were associated with temples. These are traditional ones that were used to decorate the walls of churches.
Russian painting flourished in the 15th century. This is exactly the time when it appears. This type of creativity is inextricably linked with the heritage of Russia and the names of many original masters. Many creators remained unknown, but the name of the great icon painter Andrei Rublev became the standard in the technique of painting icons for many centuries.
The first realistic paintings appeared in Russia in the seventeenth century. Russian artists, as well as European painters, are beginning to turn to certain genres -,. The activities of Peter I played a role in this, who opened a “window to Europe” and made European traditions accessible in Russia.
Peter the First
The history of the Russian people is full of heroic and vibrant social events. The Russian soul was distinguished by its special sensitivity, receptivity, and imagination. Therefore, in Russian painting there is a variety of themes, subjects, and images. Russian artists were progressive people, and in their works one can find a reflection of all the changes taking place in society.
Russian painters have achieved outstanding results in depicting man and his inner state. The paintings often contain scenes from the lives of ordinary people, their suffering, hopes and aspirations. Russian nature in all its splendor was also a theme of inspiration for Russian artists. Moreover, if at first landscapes were simply images of natural beauties, then later artists learned to convey their feelings through nature.
Marc Chagall
At the beginning of the 20th century, modernism came to Russian painting. Here, too, Russia was in no way inferior to other countries, giving the world bright works by avant-garde artists - Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Kazimir Malevich.
It is difficult to list all the outstanding Russian artists, but the most famous names are I. Shishkin, V. Savrasov, I. Repin, V. Surikov, K. Bryullov and many others. They are the pride of Russian painting, their works have received worldwide recognition.
The history of ancient Russian art goes back almost a thousand years. It originated in the 9th-10th centuries, when the first feudal state of the Eastern Slavs arose - Kievan Rus; its last stage was the 17th century. - the period of crisis of medieval artistic culture in Russia and the formation of new artistic principles. In the 9th-10th centuries, the primitive communal system gave way to the feudal one. A powerful Old Russian early feudal state arose, under the conditions of whose growth the Old Russian nationality took shape and there was a bright flowering of art, architecture and monumental painting par excellence. The majestic and solemn art of the Kyiv state of the 10th and early 12th centuries became the basis for all subsequent development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rus'.
The path of development of ancient Russian art is divided into a number of clearly defined periods, mainly coinciding with the stages of the socio-economic and political history of society. This is the Age of Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the time of feudal fragmentation (12th and 13th centuries), the period of struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the unification of Russian principalities (14th - early 15th centuries), the time of formation and strengthening the Russian centralized state (15th and 16th centuries) and, finally, the 17th century, when a crisis in medieval art emerged and a new type of art emerged.
During the period of feudal fragmentation, art, despite the identification of many local shades, retained and developed all-Russian features. In the 12th century, a new center for gathering national forces was formed - the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, which made a major and original contribution to the artistic development of Ancient Rus'.
But in the 13th century, Rus' was invaded by the Tatar-Mongols. The flourishing Russian culture suffered enormous damage. Having taken the blow of the Tatar-Mongol hordes, Ancient Rus', in essence, saved European civilization, providing the European peoples with the opportunity for calm national development. The South and Center of Russian lands were devastated. Only the North - Novgorod and Pskov - escaped general ruin.
However, the idea of the unity of the Russian land deeply entered the consciousness of the masses; the best works of Russian literature of the period of feudal fragmentation were imbued with it; It was also reflected in fine art. In the fight against the Mongol yoke, the people's strength rallied, strengthened, and their national self-awareness grew. In the XIV-XV centuries, the Great Russian people took shape. The culture of the growing Moscow principality developed on the basis of the cultural traditions of Kievan and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'. As a result of the powerful national upsurge, especially after the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), the first flowering of Moscow art followed: architecture, painting, applied art. This was a period marked by the activity of the brilliant Andrei Rublev, whose work represents the highest point reached in the development of ancient Russian painting. The 15th century was a time of high achievements and the Novgorod school of painting. The best paintings of this time are marked by deep ideological content; The basic qualities of ancient Russian painting - a sense of rhythm, color, amazing in beauty and strength - reached the highest perfection.
The process of unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow, largely completed by the 80s of the 15th century, also determined the further development of Russian culture and art. New Kremlin walls and towers, new cathedrals - the Assumption and Arkhangelsk, fresco paintings of Dionysius and his school - are clear evidence of the achievements of art of this period.
The fruitful development of art continued in the second half of the 16th century. The art of this time actively contributed to the strengthening of feudal ideology, promoting the idea of a strong central government (autocracy). The achievements of architecture were especially great. It was at this time that the widespread penetration of folk principles into architecture - the influence of folk wooden architecture - led to the creation of such a masterpiece as St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560).
At the same time, secular motifs began to penetrate more and more into the art of this time, indicating the emergence of new, deeply progressive views of the world, man, and nature. The development of “worldly”, secular trends in painting at the end of the 16th century brings us close to the 17th century - the century from which, according to V.I. Lenin, and a “new period of Russian history” begins, which at the same time is the largest final stage in the development of ancient Russian art - a time of radical change in the aesthetic ideas of ancient Rus'.
In the art of the 10th-16th centuries - in the art of Kyiv, and especially Novgorod and Pskov, and in the art of Moscow (especially in the 16th century) - realistic tendencies usually appeared under the influence of folk traditions and popular ideas. In the 17th century, the growth of realistic elements in art proceeded at a particularly rapid pace and, ultimately, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, led to a decisive turning point, to the replacement of the old artistic system with a new one. New historical conditions made the emergence of a new, secular art, with other means of artistic expression, inevitable.
During the period of development of the architecture of pre-Mongol Rus', covering mainly the XII - early XIII centuries, the architecture of three regions stands out: northwestern (Novgorod and Pskov), southwestern (Dnieper region, Ryazan and Galicia-Volyn lands, Western Rus') and north -eastern (Vladimir-Suzdal Principality).
The construction of such large structures as the main cathedrals of the Kievan Rus period speaks of the high level of construction art of that time. The type of temple developed on the basis of the cross-domed system inherited from Byzantium with five or three naves with domes on sails.
In the pre-Mongol period, the most striking schools of architecture and painting developed in the Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. This was determined, first of all, by the circumstances that Novgorod in the 12th century. freed from the power of the prince and became a feudal republic, its ties with Western European countries expanded, and the cities of Vladimir and Suzdal - the centers of northeastern Rus' - became the most developed part of the Russian state.
With the beginning of the feudal fragmentation of Rus' and the emergence of new centers, local schools of painting began to take shape. In Vladimir and Novgorod, the Kiev tradition is gradually being reworked, and art is becoming more and more original. Development is going in two directions. On the one hand, the influence of the church is increasingly felt, the role of which greatly increases during the years of intense struggle in Kyiv against the separatist tendencies of local principalities. The Church is fighting against the remnants of paganism, for the purity and severity of Christian rituals. The images of saints become more severe and ascetic. The richness of the chiaroscuro modeling of early Kyiv mosaics and frescoes is replaced by emphasized linearity, enhancing the flat character of the images. On the other hand, the influences of folk, ancient Slavic culture are increasingly penetrating into the art of local schools.
The category of hagiographic icons of Novgorod of the 14th century includes the icons of the Russian Museum. Their artistic language is extremely laconic, architectural scenes are reduced to a minimum, pure color dominates, with the Novgorodians’ favorite contrast of red and white. The icon of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker is painted very softly, while the hagiographic icon of St. George is painted in a harsh, almost “poster” manner. In the margins are various scenes of George's torment, in the middle - an expanded version of George's miracle about the serpent with Princess Elisava (instead of Elizabeth!), with her parents and the bishop looking out from the tower. All the main elements of this composition are already found in the famous 12th century fresco in the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga. But that shade of fabulousness that was characteristic of the painting was even more intensified in the icon with its contrasts of scale, the peculiar soaring of figures in the air and naive narration. The princess seems like a toy, and so does the dragon, obediently crawling behind Elisava.
The images in the stamps are extremely clear, mostly reproducing various scenes of torture. George is quartered, beaten, stones are placed on him, he is put in a cauldron of boiling water, his head is sawed off and he is subjected to many other difficult tests. But it's all in vain. He comes out unscathed from any alterations, and his face remains unchanged, as if he feels nothing and feels nothing. This is how the Novgorod master recreates the story of the heroism of the martyr. And he does this so vividly and convincingly that, despite the naivety of his artistic language, each episode takes on amazing specificity.
The largest role in the development of Novgorod art of the 14th century was played by the work of Theophanes the Greek, a remarkable artist who came to Novgorod from Byzantium in the 70s of the 14th century. A reliable work of Theophanes in Novgorod is the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1378). The frescoes in the dome have been preserved: Christ Pantocrator in the center, below are figures of archangels with wide-open wings and six-winged seraphim, and in the drum between the windows are eight full-length figures of forefathers.
Periodization of Russian art.
First largest phase covers almost three thousand years of pagan pre-state existence, and the second - a thousand years of Christian statehood.
Second phase- Christian, which took a thousand years - can be divided into three periods.
I period The development of Russian culture is associated with the Rurik dynasty (IX-XVI centuries). It is divided into two important stages - Kiev and Moscow. This period is called pre-Petrine. The main cultural dominant is the orientation of Russian art to the East, primarily to Byzantium. The main sphere where creative thought was formed and where the national genius manifested itself most forcefully was religious art.
II period associated with the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917). The two main cultural centers that determined the general direction and stylistic identity of Russian culture during this period were Moscow and St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg played the first violin in this duet. The period is called Peter's, since it was the reforms of Peter I that turned the culture of our country towards the West. Western Europe became the main source of cultural borrowing and imitation at this time. The main sphere where creative thought was formed and where the national genius manifested itself with the greatest force was secular art.
III period begins after the Great October Revolution, tsarism was overthrown. Moscow becomes the main and only cultural center of Soviet art. The cultural reference point is neither the West nor the East. The main orientation is to search for one’s own reserves, to create an original socialist culture based on Marxist ideology. The latter cannot be called in the strict sense either religious or secular, since it amazingly combines both and is not similar to either one or the other.
The defining moment in the cultural development of Soviet society (within its state borders) should be considered the division of the common cultural space into official culture and unofficial culture, a significant (if not dominant) part of which is represented by dissidence and nonconformism. Outside the state, scattered throughout the countries of Europe and America, a powerful culture of the Russian diaspora was formed, which, like unofficial art within the USSR, was in antagonism with the official culture.
IV period Post-Soviet.
Primitive art on the territory of Russia.
Primitive art is only a part of primitive culture, which, in addition to art, includes religious beliefs and cults, special traditions and rituals.
Primitive painting was a two-dimensional image of an object, and sculpture was a three-dimensional, or three-dimensional. Thus, primitive creators mastered all the dimensions that exist in modern art, but did not master its main achievement - the technique of transferring volume on a plane (Kapova Cave, Russia).
Mother cult- successors of the family - one of the most ancient cults. The cult of the animal - the animic ancestor of the clan - is no less an ancient cult. The first symbolized the material beginning of the clan, the second - the spiritual (many tribes today trace their clan back to one or another animal - an eagle, a bear, a snake).
Sculptures – women (Venus) and Mammoths.
Initially, our ancestors led a sedentary lifestyle. The dead were buried in their best clothes. They knew how to sew and cut clothes. There were excavations on the lower Oka and Ukraine where two races were found: non-Grid and Indo-European. 12-10 thousand years ago we left the caves. 8 thousand years BC e Magdalenian painting disappears; images of animals are replaced by drawings of symbols that turn into ornaments. Tools appear. The Stone Age consists of 3 directions. 1. Microlithic (original small forms) 2. Mesolithic (mesos - medium and líthos - stone). 3. Melithic (Stonehenge)
At 2 thousand. Signs of our independence have been found. Cultures: Chenoleskaya, Mitrogradskaya, Chernikhovskaya. Development was progressive. 800-809 Migration of the Slavs from the Elbe. Perun is the god of war. Kolida, Yarilo Kupala. Groups of idols: 1. Man with a cornucopia. 2 images without any special features. 3 deities of births having cont. life. In the north, the water god is a lizard - a crocodile. Chthonos earth gods.
Culture of the ancient Slavs.
Slavic mythology and religion were formed over a long period in the process of separating the ancient Slavs from the Indo-European community of peoples in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. interacting with other peoples.
In the 1st millennium BC the Celts and Scythian-Sarmatians had a great influence. In particular, the architecture of religious buildings was formed. The Eastern Slavs had in their pantheon deities of Iranian origin Khors, Semargl, and others.
The beliefs of the Slavs and the Balts were very close (for example, Perun and Veles)
Much with German and Scandinavian mythology (the motif of the world tree and the cult of the dragon). Each tribe developed its own pantheon of gods. Slavic paganism belongs to political religions, i.e. The Slavs recognized the existence of many gods.
A distinctive feature was: dualism - the existence of rivalry between two gods.
The Slavs distinguished and contrasted the black and white principles of the world, dark and light, feminine and masculine principles (for example, Belobog and Chernobog, Perun and Veles). The Slavs are characterized by the veneration of animals (bear, wolf, lizard, eagle, horse, rooster, duck, aurochs, wild boar).
But totemism is practically unknown. Nature spirits: goblins, mermaids, kikimoras. Spirits of buildings: brownies, evil spirits, banniki.
Paganism is characterized as ancestor worship. Fertility cult. Veles is the bestial god, Makosh is the goddess of fertility. Dazhdbog is the god of fertility and sunlight.
Sacred places were various natural objects. Religious sites with idols and sacrificial pits - such places were called “treasures”. Idols were made of wood, metal, clay and stone, buildings and large complexes. Temples in the narrow sense are large premises with idols inside. Calendar holidays are associated with the agricultural cycle and astronomical phenomena (Maslenitsa, Kupala, Koleda). Wedding customs are divided into 2 types: patriarchal and matriarchal marriage. Funeral rites: the deceased were burned, and the ashes were placed in a small vessel and buried in a shallow hole.
Early Christian period
In the first centuries of Christianity, there might not have been a barrier between the temple (naos) and the altar. For example, the cubeculae in the Roman catacombs, where in the 2nd-4th centuries. Christians gathered for the liturgy. Over time, curtains became widespread. Currently, in Orthodox churches, the curtain is located behind the iconostasis and opens at certain moments of the service.
Development of the iconostasis in Old Russian art
The decoration of ancient Russian churches initially repeated Byzantine customs. In some Novgorod churches of the 12th century, research has revealed an unusual arrangement of altar barriers. They were very high, but their exact structure and the possible number of icons are not known. A favorable situation for the growth of the altar barrier was in wooden churches, of which there was a majority in Rus'. They did not do wall painting, which was always very important in Byzantine churches, so the number of icons could increase.
“Classical” high iconostases of the 15th-17th centuries
The first known multi-tiered iconostasis was created for the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir in 1408 (or 1410-11). Its creation is associated with the painting of the Assumption Cathedral by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev. The iconostasis has not been completely preserved to this day. In the 18th century it was replaced with a new one. The iconostasis had 4 rows of icons. Above the local row, which has not survived, there was a huge Deesis rank (height 314 cm). 13 icons from it have survived. There are unproven suggestions that there were more. Above there was a festive row, of which only 5 icons survived. The iconostasis ended with waist-length icons of the prophets (this is the first example of the prophetic order). It is interesting that studies of the fastening of the iconostasis revealed the uneven arrangement of the rows of icons. The Deesis rite was brought forward to the worshipers, and the holidays were located a little deeper towards the altar. An important feature of the iconostasis was its division into five parts - it stood in parts in three openings of the altar apses and at the ends of the outer naves. This is confirmed by frescoes preserved on the western faces of the eastern pillars. Among them are figures from the 12th century and medallions with martyrs, executed in 1408. They could not be covered by the iconostasis created at the same time. The iconostasis was arranged similarly in the Assumption Cathedral on Gorodok in Zvenigorod.
By the end of the 15th century, the tradition of high 4-tier iconostases was entrenched in Moscow icon painting. In the 2nd half of the 16th century, new iconographic subjects became widespread in Russian icon painting. The new images had complex dogmatic and moralizing content, often illustrated liturgical texts and Holy Scripture verbatim, and included many symbols and even allegories. Among them, images of the Fatherland and the “New Testament Trinity” appeared.
In the 1st half - mid-17th century, the 5-tier iconostasis became widespread in Russia. Since such iconostases completely covered the entire eastern side of the temple interior, corresponding changes took place in the architecture of the churches. The altar began to be separated by a solid stone wall, cut through by gate openings. It is interesting that in most churches in Rostov, iconostases were painted in fresco directly along the eastern wall of the temple. The gates of the local row were usually distinguished by magnificent portals.
In rare cases, life-size icons could be replaced with half-length or main icons. Even more rarely, the number of rows of the iconostasis was reduced.
At the end of the 17th century, the Naryshkin style appeared in Russian art, also called Moscow or Naryshkin baroque in literature. For a short period from the late 1680s to the early 1700s. A lot of churches were built in this style, as well as several large cathedrals. At the same time, buildings of a similar nature were erected by the Stroganovs and Golitsyns. The new architecture of churches also caused changes in the design of the iconostasis. In the Naryshkin style temples, new decorative forms were just in place. The iconostasis in them turned into a lush gilded frame with colorful splashes of icons, dominating the interior of the temple, as it contrasted with the unpainted white walls. In this case, the sequence of verticals and horizontals of the order system begins to be deliberately violated. Icons are made not rectangular, but round, oval or faceted. Due to lack of space, the figures of the upcoming apostles and prophets can be combined three to six in one icon.
Modern iconostases
The confident development of Russian church art towards the study and assimilation of ancient traditions was interrupted by the revolution and the persecution of religion and the Church. At the same time, colossal damage was caused to the surviving monuments, including the destruction of many iconostases of the last period. At the same time, the scientific study of ancient Russian monuments intensified. The most important discoveries were made, many icons were found and restored, and the picture of the historical development of icon painting became clearer.
However, the form of a high iconostasis lost its relevance; a low altar barrier turned out to be more in demand. This was influenced by the local tradition of Catholicism and Protestantism. If in the early period there were curtains and barriers in the temples of Western Europe, as in the East, then later they disappeared.
7. Art of Kievan Rus.
During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (late 10th-17th centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (in 988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted traditions ancient, primarily Greek, culture.
The process of eliminating paganism was spontaneous, but nevertheless attempts were made to quickly strengthen the new religion, to make it close and accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; Elements of popular deification of nature penetrated into the church, and some saints began to be assigned the role of old gods.
In pre-Mongol times, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv. The art of the pre-Mongol period is characterized by one distinctive feature - monumentalism of forms. Architecture rightfully occupies a special place in it. Medieval Russian art was determined by the Christian worldview.
It is quite possible that the Eastern Slavs had their own wooden chopped temples and that these temples were multi-domed.
Polydomes, therefore, were an original national feature of Russian architecture, which was then adopted by the art of Kievan Rus.
Came to Rus' with Christianity cross-domed shape of the temple– typical for Greek-Eastern Orthodox countries.
The most common masonry technique in the construction of temples in Kievan Rus was the so-called mixed – “opus mixtum” - the walls were erected from thinner material than modern , plinth bricks and stone on pink lime mortar - tsemyanka. On the façade there was a row of bricks alternating with a row cemyanka, and that is why it seemed striped, which in itself was a decision for the decorative design of the exterior. The so-called masonry with a recessed row was often used: not all rows of bricks faced the façade, but every other, and the pink layer of cement was three times thicker than the brick layer. Stripes of pink cement and red brick on the facade, complexly profiled windows and niches - all together created an elegant, festive appearance of the building; no other decorative decoration was required.
Immediately after the adoption of Christianity, a temple was built in Kyiv Assumption of the Virgin Mary, so-called Tithe Church(989–996) - the first stone temple of Kievan Rus known to us. Tithe Church ( the prince allocated 1/10 of his income for its maintenance - hence the name) was destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, so we can judge it only from the remains of the foundation, some decorative elements and written sources. It was a large 25-domed six-pillar church, surrounded on both sides by lowered galleries, which gave a pyramidal appearance to the entire temple (the western part had a complex, still not fully identified layout). Pyramidality and mass accumulation are features alien to Byzantine architecture; perhaps such gradation was inherent in pagan structures erected on the territory of the future Kievan Rus.
From the next, 11th century, several monuments have been preserved in Kyiv, and the most famous of them is Sofia Kyiv,
As in the Church of the Tithes, the interior of St. Sophia of Kyiv was unusually rich and picturesque: the well-lit altar rooms and the central domed space were decorated with mosaics, the pillars of the naves, the darker side rooms under the choirs, the walls were decorated with frescoes. The floors were also mosaic and slate.
The same craftsmen who built Sophia of Kyiv took part in the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, built in 1045–1050. under Prince Vladimir Yaroslavich in the center of the Kremlin. But the Novgorod Sophia is simpler and more laconic in its forms, as if akin to the Novgorod spirit. This is a 5-, not 13-domed, five-nave temple, with a wide gallery and only one staircase tower. Not only its exterior, which amazes with the nobility of its powerful forms, is stricter and more monolithic, but also its interior, its decoration is more modest, in which there were no mosaics, no marble, no slate. Another building material: instead of thin elegant plinth, local rough is used limestone. Brick is used only in vaults and arches. In many ways, the five-nave St. Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk (mid-11th century) is also close to Novgorod Sofia, the masonry technique of which is similar to that of Kyiv. Heavily rebuilt over time. Polotsk Sofia is now being successfully studied by researchers.
Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery(1073–1077, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich),
Church of the Annunciation on Gorodishche (1103),
St. Nicholas Cathedral on Yaroslav's Courtyard (1113),
Nativity Cathedral of the Anthony Monastery (1117) and St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery(1119),
Old Russian icon painters.
Andrey Rublev(near 1340 /1350 - 17 October 1428, Moscow; buried in Spaso-Andronikov Monastery) - the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school icon painting, book and monumental painting 15th century. Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church V 1988 canonized Reverend.Biographical information
Biographical information about Rublev is extremely scarce: most likely, he was born in the Moscow Principality (according to other sources - in Novgorod) around 1340/1350, was brought up in a family of hereditary icon painters, took monastic vows in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery under Nikon of Radonezh (according to another hypothesis, in the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery under the abbot St. Andronik († 1373)). Andrey is a monastic name; the worldly name is unknown (most likely, according to the then tradition, it also began with “A”). An icon signed “Andrei Ivanov son of Rublev” has been preserved; it is late and the signature is clearly fake, but perhaps it is indirect evidence that the artist’s father was really named Ivan.
Rublev's work developed on the basis of the artistic traditions of the Moscow principality; he was also well acquainted with Byzantine and South Slavic artistic experience. The first mention of Andrei in the chronicle appeared only in 1405, indicating that Theophanes the Greek, Prokhor the Elder and monk Andrei Rublev painted the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. Apparently, by 1405 Andrei had thoroughly succeeded in his skill in icon painting, if the monk was entrusted with such important work and, moreover, with Theophan the Greek. The second time Andrey is mentioned in the chronicle is in 1408, when he made paintings with Daniil the Black in the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Only 3 years have passed, and Andrey already has assistants and students. Everyone was drawn to him, because by that time Andrei had already fully formed his own individual, real Russian style. In 1420, Andrei and Daniil Cherny supervised the work in the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. These paintings have not survived. In 1411 or 1425-27 he created his masterpiece - “The Trinity”.
Rublev died during a pestilence on October 17, 1428 in Moscow, in the Andronikov Monastery, where in the spring of 1428 he completed his last work on painting the Spassky Cathedral. The exact burial place is unknown.
The formation of Rublev's worldview was greatly influenced by the atmosphere of national upsurge of the 2nd half of the 14th - early 15th centuries, which was characterized by a deep interest in moral and spiritual problems. In his works within the framework of medieval iconography, Rublev embodied a new, sublime understanding of the spiritual beauty and moral strength of man. These qualities are inherent in the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (“Savior”, “Apostle Paul”, “Archangel Michael”, all - the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, according to other studies, the 10s of the 15th century, Tretyakov Gallery), where laconic smooth contours, wide The painting style is close to the techniques of monumental painting.
At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries (according to other studies, around 1412), Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon “Life-Giving Trinity
" (Tretyakov Gallery). Rublev filled the traditional biblical story with deep theological content. Departing from traditional iconography, he placed a single bowl in the center of the composition, and repeated its outlines in the contours of the side angels. The clothes of the middle angel (red tunic, blue himation, sewn stripe - clav) clearly refer us to the iconography of Jesus Christ. Two of those sitting at the table turn their head and body towards the angel written on the left, in whose appearance one can read paternal authority. His head is not bowed, his body is not bowed, but his gaze is turned to other angels. The light purple color of the clothes indicates royal dignity. All this is an indication of the first person of the Holy Trinity. Finally, the angel on the right side is depicted wearing a smoky green outer garment. This is the hypostasis of the Holy Spirit, behind which the mountain rises. There are several more symbols on the icon: a tree and a house. The tree - the Mamvrian oak - turned into Rublev's tree of life and became an indication of the life-giving nature of the Trinity. The house embodies God's Economy. The House is depicted behind the back of an angel with the features of the Father (Creator, Head of the House), the Tree is behind the back of the middle angel (Son of God), the Mountain is behind the back of the third angel (Holy Spirit). The central angel is highlighted by the expressive contrast of spots of dark cherry and blue, as well as an exquisite combination of golden ocher with delicate cabbage roll and greenery. And the outer contours form a 5-gon, symbolizing the star of Bethlehem. “Trinity” is designed for distant and near points of view, each of which differently reveals the richness of shades and masterly work of the brush. The harmony of all elements of the form is an artistic expression of the main idea of the “Trinity” - self-sacrifice as the highest state of spirit that creates harmony in the world and life.
In 1405, Rublev, together with Feofan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (the frescoes have not survived), and in 1408 Rublev, together with Daniil Cherny and other masters, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (the painting has been partially preserved) and created icons for its monumental three-tier iconostasis, which became an important stage in the formation of the system of high Russian iconostasis. Of Rublev’s frescoes in the Assumption Cathedral, the most significant is the composition “The Last Judgment,” where a traditionally formidable scene turned into a bright celebration of the triumph of justice, affirming the spiritual value of man. Rublev's works in Vladimir indicate that already at that time he was a mature master who stood at the head of the school of painting he created.
Dionysius(c. 1440-1502) - leading Moscow icon painter (isographer) of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. He is considered a successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev.
The earliest known work is the painting of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Pafnutievo Borovsky Monastery (1467-1477). In 1481, an artel led by Dionysius painted the Assumption Church in Moscow (most likely the Assumption Cathedral, built by Aristotle Fioravanti). His assistants in this work, as the chronicle reports, were “Prest Timofey, Yarets and Konya.” Not earlier than 1486, perhaps more than once, he worked in the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery: there he painted icons for the cathedral church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, heading a painting artel. The last documented works, and probably the most famous works of Dionysius, are the wall paintings and iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary of the Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir. Quite a few works of art are known, the authorship of which is documented by Dionysius, either attributed to Dionysius himself or to those around him. Among the icons of the master that have survived to our time, the following are known: hagiographic icons of Metropolitans Peter and Alexei (1462-1472), “Our Lady Hodegetria” (1482), “Baptism of the Lord” (1500), “The Savior in Power” and “ Crucifixion" (1500), "Descent into Hell".
12.. 17th century art
Foreign intervention, the formation of an all-Russian market, the formation of absolutism.
The struggle between antiquity and newness.
“rebellious period” (copper and salt riots).
Changes in the Russian Church: the reforms of Patriarch Nikon led to a split in the church.
Changes in the economic sphere, the creation of manufactories, rapprochement with Western Europe - all this led to a breakdown in the social worldview.
Violation of iconographic canons in painting, rapprochement of religious and civil architecture, love of decoration, polychrome... a rapid process of secularization of the culture of the 17th century!
In the 17th century the history of ancient Russian art ends, the way opens for a new secular culture! The art of a new time is born!
The main customers are the wealthy peasantry and wealthy merchants.
Three stages in architecture:
First quarter of the 17th century(the connection with the traditions of the 16th century is still strong)
Church of the Intercession in the royal village of Rubtsovo (a beautiful temple with a closed vault). Tent construction continues. In the 30s, the largest secular building was built on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin - Terem Palace(multi-volume residential service premises, created for the royal children, multi-colored decor (carved on white stone, rich painting by Simon Ushakov inside)).
Mid-century 40-80s(a style typical of the 17th century is emerging - with a picturesque, asymmetrical grouping of masses, the design of the building is difficult to read through the decor covering the entire wall (most often polychrome); hipped architecture loses its meaning; churches appear in which there are 2, 3, sometimes 5 of the same height tents (Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki in Moscow (three tents of the main volume) the tents are blank, often decorative); a certain type of temple is spreading - pillarless, usually five-domed, with decorative side drums, different-scale limits, a porch, a refectory, a hipped bell tower (Trinity Church in Nikitinki); the richness of architectural decoration is especially characteristic of Yaroslavl (the Church of Elijah the Prophet is a large five-domed temple; the Church of St. John Chrysostom is a hipped bell tower 38 meters high, multi-colored decorative decoration).
End of the century: a departure from old techniques and the establishment of new ones (the birth of a new time). A new style “Moscow” or “Naryshkin Baroque” appears in architecture (most of the churches of this style were built in Moscow by order of the noble boyars Naryshkins); main features - centricity, tiering, symmetry of masses, balance of masses; Church of the Intercession in Fili (the aspiration of the entire arch volume upward).
The architecture of the 17th century is characterized by its geographical scale; active construction is underway in Moscow and its environs, Yaroslavl, Tver, Pskov, Ryazan, Kostroma, Vologda...
Many public buildings are being built: the Printing Palace, the Coin Palace, the Orders Building, the Sretensky Gate of the Zemlyanoy City.
Painting: two different artistic directions: Godunov school(most of the works were performed by order of Boris Godunov; they tried to follow the monumental images of Rublev and Dionysius); Stroganov school(some icons were commissioned by eminent people the Stroganovs; Procopius Chirin (the icon “Nicetas the Warrior” is a fragile figure, lacking the masculinity of holy warriors), Nazarius, Fyodor and Istoma Savina; the icon is small in size, a precious miniature, signed and not anonymous, very carefully fine writing, sophistication of design, richness of ornamentation, abundance of gold and silver.
The gradual dying of a monumental image.
Chief painter of the Armory Chamber – Simon Ushakov(the relationship of painting with real nature; “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, “The Trinity” (to an angel they are completely earthly beings); achieves a bodily tone of the face, almost classical correctness of features, volume of construction, emphasized perspective.
Hood Center - Armory (masters painted churches and chambers, painted icons and miniatures, created drawings for icons).
Fresco painting of the 17th century: it is monumental, the images are crushed (poorly readable from a distance), genre scenes are intertwined with ornament, the ornament covers the architecture of people's figures, their costumes, decorative frescoes, festivity, interest in a person in his everyday life.
Portrait: parsuna, there is a certain portrait resemblance, close to an icon, naivety of forms, static, local, an attempt at black and white modeling; portraits of Ivan 4, Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Prince Shuisky.
13. Art of Peter's time.
Peter's reforms in the economy, state, military, political and social life, as well as in culture and art. The transition from ancient Rus' to modern Russia. The process of Europeanization. In just 50 years, Russia in all areas had to go through the same path of development that lasted 2-3 centuries in the West. Peter sends people abroad to study science, craft and art.
Architecture. Petersburg was founded in 1903. Dominico Trezzini - the chief architect of the city at that time. The Peter and Paul Cathedral, a basilica church with three aisles in composition, was completed according to Trezzini's plan in its western part with a high bell tower with a spire. Peter's Gate of the Peter and Paul Fortress (1707–1708 – first in wood, and in 1717–1718 converted to stone) in honor of Russia's victory in the Northern War. D. Trezzini also owns the building of the Twelve Colleges. Of the early buildings of St. Petersburg, the Summer Palace of Peter in the Summer Garden (1710–1714, D. Trezzini, A. Schlüter, etc.), a simple rectangular two-story building with a high roof, has survived. The Menshikov Palace on Vasilyevsky Island on the banks of the Neva (10–20s of the 18th century, J.-M. Fontana and G. Schedel, restored in the 60–80s of the 20th century), is a new type of estate. It consisted of a new stone palace, an old wooden one, a church and an extensive formal garden behind the new building.
Painting. Since the beginning of the 18th century. The main place in painting begins to be occupied by oil paintings on a secular subject. Preferred place is given to portraits in all varieties: chamber, ceremonial; full-length, busty, double. The portrait of the 18th century showed an exceptional interest in man, so characteristic of Russian art (for Russian literature - in a later period, from the next century). Ivan Nikitich Nikitin - portrait of Pyotr Praskovya Ioannovna’s niece, State Russian Museum; portrait of Peter's beloved sister Natalya Alekseevna, 1716. In the portrait of Praskovya Ioannovna there is still a lot from old Russian painting: there is no anatomical correctness, the cut-off modeling of the form is carried out by highlighting from dark to light, the pose is static. There are no color reflexes. The light is even and diffused. But at the same time, one can read one’s inner world in one’s face. The portrait of Chancellor Golovkin, painted after his arrival from abroad, is full of extremely intense inner life. Portrait of Sergei Stroganov. Image of Peter on his deathbed. Andrey Matveev – “Allegory of Painting” - the first easel painting on an allegorical plot that has survived to us in Russia, depicts an allegorical figure of painting surrounded by cupids, sitting at an easel. “Portrait of Galitsina”, “Self-portrait with his wife” - Matveev’s painting, transparent, “floating”, with subtle transitions from image to background, fuzzy light and shadow gradations and dissolving contours, rich in glazes, in this work reaches perfection and testifies to the full flowering of his creative strength
Sculpture.B.K.Rastrelli - bust of A. D. Menshikov - a somewhat theatrical, spectacular, majestic image. The portrait bust of Peter is a typical work of Baroque (like the bust of Menshikov). The statue of Anna Ioannovna with a little black is the first Russian monument. Equestrian statue of Peter.
Thus, towards the end of Peter’s life, the process of formation of secular art in all its types and genres took place.
14. Art of the mid-18th century.
2 stages: Stage 1 – 30 years – the dark time of Anna Ioannovna’s reign; 40-50 – years of Elizabethan rule, some softening of the morals of the previous time, growth of national self-awareness, encouragement of everything domestic, the time of the formation of the Russian Baroque style, marking the synthesis of all types of art.
Architecture.F.B. Rastrelli. His early works were the Biron palaces in Mitava (1738–1740, now Jelgava) and Ruentale (1736–1740, now Rundal), the Summer (wooden) Palace of Elizabeth Petrovna, which stood on the site of the Mikhailovsky Castle and was preserved in an engraving based on a drawing by M. Mahaev ( 1741–1744). Palace M.I. Vorontsov (1749–1758) on Sadovaya Street in St. Petersburg with its spectacular play of chiaroscuro on the facades testifies to the formation of its own creative personality. Great Peterhof Palace. Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo. Winter Palace. Smolny Monastery complex. In all of Rastrelli’s works (and here we can add the Stroganov Palace in St. Petersburg in 1752–1754, and the St. Andrew’s Cathedral in Kiev, built according to his design by the Moscow architect I.F. Michurin), with all the decorative splendor of the decoration and the play of chiaroscuro on the facades, the colorful combinations colors of intense blue, white and gilding preserve the amazing clarity of the main composition, which becomes an indispensable feature of Russian Baroque.
In the 18th century, especially in its first half and middle, it was customary to erect Triumphal Arches in honor of some outstanding event: in the time of Peter the Great, glorious Victorias were celebrated in this way, during the reign of Anna Ioannovna and Elizaveta Petrovna, triumphal gates were built in honor of the namesake or on the occasion of coronations, etc.
Russian Baroque caused the rise of all types of decorative and applied arts.
Painting.I.Ya.Vishnyakov - portraits of the children of the head of the Chancellery from the Farmer's buildings - Sarah Eleonora and Wilhelm Georg Farmer. Paired portraits of the Tishinins. Ruler Anna Leopoldovna. The features of Vishnyakov’s brush are visible in all these works, one of the most interesting is the portrait of Sarah Fermor. The portrait combines, as is typical for Vishnyakov, seemingly sharply contrasting features: in it one can feel the still living Russian medieval tradition - and the brilliance of the form of ceremonial European art of the 18th century. The figure and pose are conventional, the backdrop is treated flatly - it is an openly decorative landscape - but the face is sculpted three-dimensionally. The writing is such that we can even guess the type of fabric, but the flowers are scattered in a moiré pattern without taking into account the folds. The face is serious, sad, with a thoughtful look. A.P.Antropov - “archaisms” in pictorial handwriting with great artistic expressiveness. A half-length image, a coloristic solution is based on the contrasts of large local color spots. Contrast and black-and-white modeling of volumes. For all of Antropov’s realistic discoveries, his writing contains much from the painting traditions of the previous century. The composition of his portraits is static. The image of the figure – with the volume of the face emphasized – is flat. There is little air in portrait backgrounds. Portrait of Ataman Red-cheeked, portrait of Rumyantseva. I.P.Argunov – portraits of the Lobanov-Rostovskys, “Kalmyk Annushka”. In the 80s, under the influence of a new direction - classicism - Argunov's style changes: the forms become sculptural, the contours are clearer, the color is more local. "Unknown peasant woman in Russian costume."
Understanding reality, expressing thoughts and feelings in symbolic form - these are all descriptions that can be used to characterize art. The origin of art lies behind centuries of mystery. While some activities can be traced through archaeological finds, others simply leave no trace.
Origin theories
For many thousands of years, people have been fascinated by art. The origins of art are taught in various educational institutions. Researchers develop hypotheses and try to confirm them.
Today, there are various theories about the origin of art. The most popular are five options, which we will discuss below.
So, the religious theory will be announced first. According to her, beauty is one of the names and manifestations of the Lord on earth, in our world. Art is the material expression of this idea. Consequently, all the fruits of human creativity owe their appearance to the Creator.
The next hypothesis speaks about the sensory nature of the phenomenon. The origin in particular comes down to the game. It is this type of activity and recreation that appeared before labor. We can observe it in representatives of the animal kingdom. Among the supporters of the version are Spencer, Schiller, Fritzsche and Bucher.
The third theory sees art as a manifestation of eroticism. In particular, Freud, Lange and Nardau believe that this phenomenon arose as a consequence of the need of the sexes to attract each other. An example from the animal world would be mating games.
Ancient Greek thinkers believed that art owes its appearance to the human ability to imitate. Aristotle and Democritus say that by imitating nature and developing within society, people were gradually able to symbolically convey sensations.
The youngest is the Marxist theory. She talks about art as a consequence of human production activity.
Theater
Theater as an art form originated quite a long time ago. Researchers believe that this idea arose from shamanic rituals. In the ancient world, people were heavily dependent on nature, worshiped various phenomena, and asked spirits for help with hunting.
For this purpose, various masks and costumes were used, plots were worked out separately for each occasion.
However, those rituals cannot be called theatrical performances. These were just rituals. In order for a certain game to be classified as entertainment art, there must be, in addition to the actor, also a spectator.
Therefore, in fact, the birth of theater begins in the era of antiquity. Before this, different actions were inextricably linked - dance, music, singing, etc. Subsequently, a separation occurred, and three main directions were gradually formed: ballet, drama and opera.
Fans of the game theory of the origin of art argue that it appeared as fun, amusement. Basically, this statement is based on ancient mysteries, where people dressed up in the costumes of satyrs and bacchantes. During this era, masquerades and crowded and cheerful holidays were held several times a year.
Subsequently, they begin to form into a separate direction - theater. Works by playwrights appear, for example, Euripides, Aeschylus, Sophocles. There are two genres: tragedy and comedy.
Afterwards the art of theater was forgotten. In fact, in Western Europe it was born anew - again from folk holidays and festivities.
Painting
The history goes back to ancient times. New drawings are still being found on the walls of caves in different parts of the world. For example, in Spain, Niah Caves in Malaysia and others.
Usually, dyes were mixed with binders, for example, coal or ocher with resin. The plots were not very diverse. These were mainly images of animals, hunting scenes, and handprints. This art dates back to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods.
Later, petroglyphs appear. In fact, this is the same rock painting, but with a more dynamic plot. An increasing number of hunting scenes are already appearing here.
However, some researchers attribute the origin of fine art to the era of Ancient Egypt. This is where strict canons of different genres appear. In particular, fine art here resulted in sculpture and monumental painting.
If we study ancient drawings, we will see that this direction of creative thought emerged from human attempts to copy and record the surrounding reality.
Later painting is represented by monuments of the Cretan-Mycenaean period and ancient Greek vase painting. The development of this art begins to accelerate. Frescoes, icons, first portraits. All this arises during the first centuries BC.
If frescoes were especially popular in antiquity, then in the Middle Ages most artists worked on creating the faces of saints. Only during the Renaissance did modern genres gradually begin to emerge.
This gave impetus to the development of all Western European painting. Caravaggism, for example, significantly influenced Flemish artists. Later Baroque, classicism, sentimentalism and other genres developed.
Music
Music is no less an ancient art. The origin of art is attributed to the first rituals of our ancestors, when dance developed and theater was born. At the same time, music appeared.
Researchers are confident that fifty thousand years ago in Africa, people conveyed their emotions through music. This is confirmed by the flutes that archaeologists find next to the sculptures in the area. The age of the figurines is about forty thousand years.
Hypotheses about the origin of art, among others, do not discount the divine influence on the first creative people. It's hard to imagine that a bored shepherd or hunter creates an elaborate system of holes in the pipe to play a cheerful melody.
Nevertheless, already the first Cro-Magnons used percussion and wind instruments in rituals.
Later comes the era of ancient music. The first recorded melody dates back to 2000 BC. A clay tablet with cuneiform text was found during excavations in Nippur. After decoding, it became known that the music was recorded in thirds.
This type of art is widely known in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. During this period, wind, percussion and plucked instruments are used.
Ancient music is replacing it. This is art dating from the fall of the Roman Empire to the mid-eighteenth century. During this period, the church direction developed especially powerfully. The secular version is represented by the creativity of troubadours, buffoons and minstrels.
Literature
The history of art and culture becomes more understandable and well-reasoned when it comes to written sources. It is literature that allows you to convey information most fully. If other types of art are focused mainly on the sensory-emotional sphere, then the latter also operates with categories of reason.
The most ancient texts have been found in countries such as India, China, Persia, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Mostly they were carved on the walls of temples, stones, and carved on clay tablets.
Among the genres of this period it is worth mentioning hymns, funeral texts, letters, and autobiographies. Later, stories, teachings, and prophecies appear.
However, ancient literature became more extensive and developed. Thinkers and playwrights, poets and prose writers of Ancient Greece and Rome left to their descendants an inexhaustible treasure of wisdom. The foundations of modern Western European and world literature were laid here. In fact, Aristotle proposed the division into lyric, epic and drama.
Dance
One of the most difficult art forms to document. No one doubts that the dance originated a very long time ago, but it is unlikely that it will be possible to determine even an approximate framework.
The earliest images were found in caves in India. There are drawn human silhouettes in dancing poses. According to theories, the origin of art, in short, is the need to express emotions and attract the opposite sex. It is dance that most fully confirms this hypothesis.
To this day, dervishes use dancing to enter a trance. We know the name of the most famous dancer in Ancient Egypt. It was Salome, originally from Idoma (an ancient state in the north of the Sinai Peninsula).
The civilizations of the Far East still do not separate dance and theater. Both of these art forms have always gone together. Pantomime, Japanese performances by actors, Indian dancers, Chinese carnivals and processions. These are all activities that allow you to express emotions and preserve tradition without using words.
Sculpture
It turns out that the history of fine art is inextricably linked with other manifestations of creativity. For example, the sculpture became a stopped moment of dance. This is confirmed by many statues of ancient Greek and Roman masters.
Researchers reveal the problem of the origin of art ambiguously. Sculpting, for example, on the one hand, arose as an attempt to personify the ancient gods. On the other hand, the masters were able to stop the moments of ordinary life.
It was sculpture that allowed artists to convey feelings, emotions, internal tension or, conversely, peace in plastic. The frozen manifestations of the spiritual world of man actually became an ancient photograph, which preserved for many millennia the ideas and appearance of the people of that time.
Like many other forms of art, sculpture originates from Ancient Egypt. Probably the most famous monument is the Sphinx. At first, craftsmen created jewelry exclusively for royal palaces and temples. Much later, in antiquity, statues reached the popular level. These words mean that from that era, anyone who had enough money to order could decorate their home with sculpture.
Thus, this type of art ceases to be the prerogative of kings and temples.
Like many other manifestations of creativity, sculpture was in decline in the Middle Ages. Revival begins only with the advent of the Renaissance.
Today this type of art is moving into a new orbit. In combination with computer graphics, 3D printers make it possible to simplify the process of creating three-dimensional images.
Architecture
The art of architecture is probably the most practical type of activity of all possible ways of expressing creative thought. After all, it is architecture that combines the organization of space for a person’s comfortable life, the expression of ideas and thoughts, as well as the preservation of certain elements of tradition.
Certain elements of this type of art arose when society was divided into layers and castes. The desire of rulers and priests to decorate their own homes so that they stood out from other buildings subsequently led to the emergence of the profession of architect.
Man-made reality, orderliness of the environment, walls - all this creates a feeling of security. And the decor allows the artist to convey the mood and atmosphere that he puts into the building.
Circus
The concept of “people of art” is rarely associated with the circus. This type of spectacle is often perceived as entertainment. its main venue was fairs and other celebrations.
The word "circus" itself comes from the Latin term for "round". An open building of this shape served as a place for entertainment for the Romans. In fact, it was a hippodrome. Later, after the collapse of the empire, in Western Europe they tried to continue the tradition, but such activities did not gain popularity. In the Middle Ages, the place of the circus was taken by minstrels among the people and mystery plays among the nobility.
At that time, people in the arts focused more on pleasing the rulers. The circus was perceived as a fairground entertainment, that is, it was low-grade.
Only in the Renaissance did the first attempts to create a prototype of the modern circus appear. Unusual skills, people with birth defects, animal trainers, jugglers and clowns entertained audiences at the time.
The situation has not changed much today. This type of art requires remarkable endurance, the ability to improvise and the ability to live a “wandering” life.
Cinema
Scientists say that man comprehends reality through science and art. The origin of art, according to theories, is associated with the need for self-expression and interaction in society.
Traditional types of creative activity, fine and performing arts gradually developed. However, with the development of progress, a stage of completely unprecedented ways of transmitting thoughts, emotions, and information began.
New types of art are emerging. One of them was cinema.
For the first time, people managed to project a picture onto a surface using a “magic lantern.” It was based on the principle of the “camera obscura”, which Leonardo da Vinci worked on. Later cameras appear. Only at the end of the nineteenth century was it possible to invent a device that made it possible to project moving images.
At the beginning of the twentieth century they said that theater as an art form had become obsolete. And with the advent of television, this was perceived as an indisputable fact. However, we see that each type of creativity has its admirers; the audience is simply being redistributed.
Thus, we have understood the theories of the origin of art, and also talked about various types of creativity.
n1.doc
1: Periodization of Russian art.First largest phase covers almost three thousand years of pagan pre-state existence, and the second - a thousand years of Christian statehood.
Second phase- Christian, which took a thousand years - can be divided into three periods.
Iperiod The development of Russian culture is associated with the Rurik dynasty (IX-XVI centuries). It is divided into two important stages - Kiev and Moscow. This period is called pre-Petrine. The main cultural dominant is the orientation of Russian art to the East, primarily to Byzantium. The main sphere where creative thought was formed and where the national genius manifested itself most forcefully was religious art.
IIperiod associated with the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917). The two main cultural centers that determined the general direction and stylistic identity of Russian culture during this period were Moscow and St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg played the first violin in this duet. The period is called Peter's, since it was the reforms of Peter I that turned the culture of our country towards the West. Western Europe became the main source of cultural borrowing and imitation at this time. The main sphere where creative thought was formed and where the national genius manifested itself with the greatest force was secular art.
IIIperiod begins after the Great October Revolution, tsarism was overthrown. Moscow becomes the main and only cultural center of Soviet art. The cultural reference point is neither the West nor the East. The main orientation is to search for one’s own reserves, to create an original socialist culture based on Marxist ideology. The latter cannot be called in the strict sense either religious or secular, since it amazingly combines both and is not similar to either one or the other.
The defining moment in the cultural development of Soviet society (within its state borders) should be considered the division of the common cultural space into official culture and unofficial culture, a significant (if not dominant) part of which is represented by dissidence and nonconformism. Outside the state, scattered throughout the countries of Europe and America, a powerful culture of the Russian diaspora was formed, which, like unofficial art within the USSR, was in antagonism with the official culture.
IV period Post-Soviet.
2. Primitive art on the territory of Russia.
Primitive art is only a part of primitive culture, which, in addition to art, includes religious beliefs and cults, special traditions and rituals.
Primitive painting was a two-dimensional image of an object, and sculpture was a three-dimensional, or three-dimensional. Thus, primitive creators mastered all the dimensions that exist in modern art, but did not master its main achievement - the technique of transferring volume on a plane (Kapova Cave, Russia).
Mother cult- successors of the family - one of the most ancient cults. The cult of the animal - the animic ancestor of the clan - is no less an ancient cult. The first symbolized the material beginning of the clan, the second - the spiritual (many tribes today trace their clan back to one or another animal - an eagle, a bear, a snake).
Sculptures – women (Venus) and Mammoths.
Initially, our ancestors led a sedentary lifestyle. The dead were buried in their best clothes. They knew how to sew and cut clothes. There were excavations on the lower Oka and Ukraine where two races were found: non-Grid and Indo-European. 12-10 thousand years ago we left the caves. 8 thousand years BC e Magdalenian painting disappears; images of animals are replaced by drawings of symbols that turn into ornaments. Tools appear. The Stone Age consists of 3 directions. 1. Microlithic (original small forms) 2. Mesolithic (mesos - medium and lnthos - stone). 3. Melithic (Stonehenge)
At 2 thousand. Signs of our independence have been found. Cultures: Chenoleskaya, Mitrogradskaya, Chernikhovskaya. Development was progressive. 800-809 Migration of the Slavs from the Elbe. Perun is the god of war. Kolida, Yarilo Kupala. Groups of idols: 1. Man with a cornucopia. 2 images without any special features. 3 deities of births having cont. life. In the north, the water god is a lizard - a crocodile. Chthonos earth gods.
3. Culture of the ancient Slavs.
Slavic mythology and religion were formed over a long period in the process of separating the ancient Slavs from the Indo-European community of peoples in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. interacting with other peoples.
In the 1st millennium BC the Celts and Scythian-Sarmatians had a great influence. In particular, the architecture of religious buildings was formed. The Eastern Slavs had in their pantheon deities of Iranian origin Khors, Semargl, and others.
The beliefs of the Slavs and the Balts were very close (for example, Perun and Veles)
Much with German and Scandinavian mythology (the motif of the world tree and the cult of the dragon). Each tribe developed its own pantheon of gods. Slavic paganism belongs to political religions, i.e. The Slavs recognized the existence of many gods.
A distinctive feature was: dualism - the existence of rivalry between two gods.
The Slavs distinguished and contrasted the black and white principles of the world, dark and light, feminine and masculine principles (for example, Belobog and Chernobog, Perun and Veles). The Slavs are characterized by the veneration of animals (bear, wolf, lizard, eagle, horse, rooster, duck, aurochs, wild boar).
But totemism is practically unknown. Nature spirits: goblins, mermaids, kikimoras. Spirits of buildings: brownies, evil spirits, banniki.
Paganism is characterized as ancestor worship. Fertility cult. Veles is the bestial god, Makosh is the goddess of fertility. Dazhdbog is the god of fertility and sunlight.
Sacred places were various natural objects. Religious sites with idols and sacrificial pits - such places were called “treasures”. Idols were made of wood, metal, clay and stone, buildings and large complexes. Temples in the narrow sense are large premises with idols inside. Calendar holidays are associated with the agricultural cycle and astronomical phenomena (Maslenitsa, Kupala, Koleda). Wedding customs are divided into 2 types: patriarchal and matriarchal marriage. Funeral rites: the deceased were burned, and the ashes were placed in a small vessel and buried in a shallow hole.
4. Symbolism of the Orthodox church
Basilica is a trading or court hall in Rome, divided into 3 longitudinal galleries (naves).
The first Christian churches used the basilica layout, as well as the term "basilica". In the first churches, in the center of the apse ending the nave, there was an altar - a table where services were performed, decorated with sculpture, gold, and jewelry. The altar was also the name given to the entire eastern part of the temple, separated by an altar barrier, and in the Orthodox - by an iconostasis. In a Catholic church, the name altar also applied to the decorative wall erected on it or behind it, usually decorated with paintings and sculptures. In the depths of the apse stood the throne of the bishop, and in a semicircle the chairs of other clergy. The middle nave was intended for ritual processions, the left side nave was originally reserved for women, the right - for men. The coverings of the basilicas of Ancient Rome used open wooden structures, which later gave way to vaulted ceilings. Christian basilicas were often built with one or two transverse naves - transepts (Latin transeptum from Latin trans - behind, septum - lit., fence), intersecting the main (longitudinal) naves at right angles. The transept appeared when it was necessary to increase the space in front of the altar and apse, and its location transformed the plan of the temple into a Latin cross (in Orthodox churches - into an Orthodox cross).
Due to the transverse nave, the area of the vestibule, an open heavenly courtyard, expanded. Later a crypt, arched vaults, and columns appeared. Each Orthodox church has its own name “Suena Upper Room”. The catacombs appear during the persecution of Christians. The church consists of: 1. Altar 2. Wed. internal Part. 3. Pretense. The construction of temples began in 313. The rotunda is round in plan. Cross-dome. In the center of the dome is the image of Christ. Mark the lion. Luke is a Taurus, Ian is an Eagle. On the North South walls are the events of the sacred history of the Supreme Testament. A city, a fortress, a temple - a symbol of integrity - have a special influence on a person entering their space or living in it. The medieval city is divided into 4 parts, with a temple in the center. The prototype is the heavenly temple of Jerusalem. Square in plan with 12 voros, but in the center is not a temple, but a god, a sacred place connected through the center with that world or the heavenly world, each secular or religious building with a round base is a projection onto the outside world of an archetypal image. 1Architype: Orthodox symbolism of the cross-domed church. 1) a temple as a cave, a cave shelter, a symbol of the salvation of another world, a model of the afterlife with vaulted structures. 2) the temple is like a mountain: a place of God's revelation, deliverance, teaching, initiation, sacrifice, salvation, spirituality. Domed temple - view of the mountain. 3) the temple is a model of the world. Levels of the world: mineral, plant, animal, constellation, human history, sacred history of the creation of the world of saints.
All liturgical and temple symbols associated with the events of the Bible. 4) the temple is human-like: pyramids, Buddhist stupas, an ancient Greek inverted boat, mosques, Orthodox. 5) a temple as a cover: a dome on 4 supports - a canopy, a domed temple - a hat, a helmet, a circle under the dome, a halo of a cover of light. 6) the temple is like a heavenly ship. The supports of the dome are the wheels of the heavenly chariot. 7) the temple as a slave is an image of heavenly beauty. 8) temple as a church. Symbolism 1. Anthropological - the church is the body of Christ of which Christ is the head. 2. Cosmological - the totality of all creation having 3. Eschotological - the church and the kingdom of God are one and the same. Iconostasis(cf.- Greek?ἰ??????ά????) - altar partition, more or less continuous, from the northern to the southern wall temple icons, separating altar part of the Orthodox church from the rest of the premises. The largest iconostasis in Russia is located in Assumption Cathedral Ryazansky Kremlin.
5. Symbolism of the Orthodox icon
From the point of view of the symbolism of the image, icon painting is one of the most complex languages known to world artistic culture. Metaphors, associations, different meanings of form, composition, palette - symbolism literally fills the image, where the smallest detail has its own and, often, very great meaning. In a sense, the Orthodox icon is a code, and the code is much more complex than it might seem at first glance. Any element included by an icon painter in a pictorial image carries a certain semantic load. Thus, the cross symbolizes martyrdom, the spear in the hands of the saint symbolizes victory over dark forces, and the pointing finger, traditionally depicted in the upper right corner, means Divine providence. The staircase, the image of which can be seen on some ancient icons, symbolizes spiritual exaltation and the desire for God, and the cave is an allegory of the underworld. A separate category consists of those signs that have already fallen out of use, however, they are found on some of the most ancient icons. Among them are vines and bunches of grapes - once common symbols of the church and the Eucharist.
Some symbols do not have their own interpretation, but act as indices that allow one to determine the status of the one depicted on the icon. First of all, this applies to robes, which are an important hierarchical sign. A fur coat or purple mantle is an attribute of holy princes, a cloak (drag) is an attribute of warriors, and a white himation symbolizes martyrdom. In this case, not only the type of clothing itself matters, but also the color and even the nature of the folds. You can often find symbols that allow you to personify the central image of the icon. Thus, it is customary to write St. Sergius of Radonezh holding the monastery he founded in the palm of his hand. The healer and great martyr Panteleimon is traditionally depicted with a box of medicines, Saint Andrei Rublev with an icon of the Trinity, and Seraphim of Sarov with a scroll of sayings and prayers. The color gold occupies a special place in icon painting. A symbol of divine light, holiness, the Kingdom of Heaven, it has been used by masters since the baptism of Rus'. At all times, icons painted on a golden background, which personifies the heavenly, upper world, were widespread. The gold-decorated halos and robes of the saints symbolize holiness and purity, while finely placed highlights and golden spaces give the image a special solemnity. however, pale yellow, on the contrary, symbolizes betrayal and stinginess. In this meaning, yellow is the color of Judas Iscariot. White - the color of the righteous symbolizes holiness, purity and innocence of the soul. Traditionally, the robes of saints were painted with it, as well as the wings of angels and the shroud of children. On many icons dedicated to the Resurrection of Christ, the Savior is depicted in white robes. A similar meaning is carried by the color silver, which is a symbol of the purity of the flesh and evangelical eloquence. Another common color that came into Russian icon painting from Byzantium is crimson, or purple. The color of the emperor, the lord, it symbolizes royalty and greatness. In Russian icon painting, the robes of holy kings and princes were traditionally painted in purple. In the same meaning it is sometimes used as a symbol of God the Father. On the other hand, the color purple has another meaning, which goes back to the images of threat and fire. Therefore, crimson tones are often used in scenes of the Last Judgment. The color red, which is widespread in Orthodox iconography, has the same double meaning. On the one hand, it is a symbol of love, life-giving energy and the Resurrection, but, at the same time, it means the sacrifice of Christ, torment and blood. In icon painting, red robes are an invariable attribute of holy martyrs. Blue color is a symbol of heaven, another, eternal world, as well as chastity and spiritual purity. The robes of the Mother of God as the Ever-Virgin are traditionally painted in blue. The color blue symbolizes mystery, revelation, wisdom and divine incomprehensibility. green, the color of spring, means the victory of life over death and eternal life. It symbolizes Christ as the giver of life and the cross as the tree of life and is often used in Nativity scenes. The color brown evokes the frailty of finite human nature, while black is used as a symbol of evil and death. It should be noted that there are also colors that are fundamentally not used in icon painting. One of them is gray. In the language of symbols, this color represents a mixture of good and evil, giving rise to ambiguity, obscurity and emptiness - concepts unacceptable in Orthodox icon painting. ( Ushakov, Simon Fedorovich, Dionysius(OK. - ) - leading Moscow icon painter (isograph) end - started XVI centuries. Considered a continuator of traditions Andrey Rublev)
6. Spatio-temporal structure of the iconostasis.
Iconostasis - altar partition, more or less continuous, from the north to the south wall temple, consisting of several rows of orderly placed icons, separating altar part of the Orthodox church from the rest of the premises. (The largest iconostasis in Russia is located in Assumption Cathedral Ryazansky Kremlin.)
The iconostasis is a kind of opportunity to present to a person absolutely every, even the smallest, episode of the history of the world, from beginning to end. The topmost row is the forefathers', in the center of the row is the icon of the Trinity, which created the world, as well as the forefathers who lived before receiving the Tablets of Moses (the Law of Moses). The choice of the forefathers depicted is arbitrary; as a rule, the meaning of this choice is known to those who ordered the iconostasis.
Below the forefathers' row is a row of prophets. In the center of the row is the icon of the Sign or the Incarnation. David and Solomon stand on the same level with the Mother of God.
The next row is the holidays, that is, the embodiment of prophecies - the life of Christ from the Birth to the Crucifixion. The word “holiday” should be understood not as joy, but as an idle day.
The fourth row is the Deesis row (or rather the Deesis row), or prayer row: in the center is the Savior, but as a judge, and not as a sufferer. A person standing in front of the iconostasis finds himself before the court of the Almighty, but they intercede for him: to the right of Christ is the Mother of God, to the left is John the Baptist, and Michael, Gabriel, Peter and Paul are located symmetrically. This structure of the iconostasis resembles something in the form of a circle that closes on us, that is, all the saints who intercede for us go downwards.
In the bottom row, local, the temple icon indicates what event or what person the temple is dedicated to. Depending on who the temple is dedicated to, Christ or the Mother of God, options are possible to eliminate the simultaneous presence of two identical icons in the iconostasis. Above the royal (paradise) doors the Last Supper or otherwise the Eucharist is depicted, on the royal doors themselves Michael and Gabriel are depicted at the top, and the four evangelists at the bottom.
The Trinity is depicted in the center of the forefathers' row, although no one has seen it, and there is no mention of it in the Old Testament. However, structure of the iconostasis has a single moment that is interpreted as the appearance of the Trinity - the appearance of God to Abraham, accompanied by two angels, before the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Thus, there is a historical person who saw the Trinity together! Under Western influence, the New Testament Trinity arose, which was left by God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Spirit. No one has ever seen them together, but no one has seen God the Father (a weak excuse is the vision of the prophet Daniel), and the Holy Spirit generally appeared in different forms: a dove in Baptism, a flame in the Descent, a cloud in the Annunciation. There was a great debate around the New Testament Trinity and its image at the Council of the Stoglavy in Russia, where the decision was made: “We command not to paint the image of the God of Hosts...”.
Early Christian period
In the first centuries of Christianity, there might not have been a barrier between the temple (naos) and the altar. For example, the cubeculae in the Roman catacombs, where in the 2nd-4th centuries. Christians gathered for the liturgy. Over time, curtains became widespread. Currently, in Orthodox churches, the curtain is located behind the iconostasis and opens at certain moments of the service.
Development of the iconostasis in Old Russian art
The decoration of ancient Russian churches initially repeated Byzantine customs. In some Novgorod churches of the 12th century, research has revealed an unusual arrangement of altar barriers. They were very high, but their exact structure and the possible number of icons are not known. A favorable situation for the growth of the altar barrier was in wooden churches, of which there was a majority in Rus'. They did not do wall painting, which was always very important in Byzantine churches, so the number of icons could increase.
“Classical” high iconostases of the 15th-17th centuries
The first known multi-tiered iconostasis was created for the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir in the year (or in 1410-11). Its creation is associated with the painting of the Assumption Cathedral by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev. The iconostasis has not been completely preserved to this day. In the 18th century it was replaced with a new one. The iconostasis had 4 rows of icons. Above the local row, which has not survived, there was a huge Deesis rank (height 314 cm). 13 icons from it have survived. There are unproven suggestions that there were more. Above there was a festive row, of which only 5 icons survived. The iconostasis ended with waist-length icons of the prophets (this is the first example of the prophetic order). It is interesting that studies of the fastening of the iconostasis revealed the uneven arrangement of the rows of icons. The Deesis rite was brought forward to the worshipers, and the holidays were located a little deeper towards the altar. An important feature of the iconostasis was its division into five parts - it stood in parts in three openings of the altar apses and at the ends of the outer naves. This is confirmed by frescoes preserved on the western faces of the eastern pillars. Among them are figures from the 12th century and medallions with martyrs, executed in 1408. They could not be covered by the iconostasis created at the same time. The iconostasis was arranged similarly in the Assumption Cathedral on Gorodok in Zvenigorod.
By the end of the 15th century, the tradition of high 4-tier iconostases was entrenched in Moscow icon painting. In the 2nd half of the 16th century, new iconographic subjects became widespread in Russian icon painting. The new images had complex dogmatic and moralizing content, often illustrated liturgical texts and Holy Scripture verbatim, and included many symbols and even allegories. Among them appeared images of the Fatherland and the “Trinity of the New Testament”.
In the 1st half - mid-17th century, the 5-tier iconostasis became widespread in Russia. Since such iconostases completely covered the entire eastern side of the temple interior, corresponding changes took place in the architecture of the churches. The altar began to be separated by a solid stone wall, cut through by gate openings. It is interesting that in most churches in Rostov, iconostases were painted in fresco directly along the eastern wall of the temple. The gates of the local row were usually distinguished by magnificent portals.
In rare cases, life-size icons could be replaced with half-length or main icons. Even more rarely, the number of rows of the iconostasis was reduced.
At the end of the 17th century, Russian art appeared Naryshkin style, also called Moscow or Naryshkin baroque in literature. For a short period from the late 1680s to the early 1700s. A lot of churches were built in this style, as well as several large cathedrals. At the same time, similar buildings were erected Stroganov And Golitsyn. The new architecture of churches also caused changes in the design of the iconostasis. In the Naryshkin style temples, new decorative forms were just in place. The iconostasis in them turned into a lush gilded frame with colorful splashes of icons, dominating the interior of the temple, as it contrasted with the unpainted white walls. In this case, the sequence of verticals and horizontals order the system begins to be deliberately violated. Icons are made not rectangular, but round, oval or faceted. Due to lack of space, the figures of the upcoming apostles and prophets can be combined three to six in one icon.
Modern iconostases
The confident development of Russian church art towards the study and assimilation of ancient traditions was interrupted by the revolution and the persecution of religion and the Church. At the same time, colossal damage was caused to the surviving monuments, including the destruction of many iconostases of the last period. At the same time, the scientific study of ancient Russian monuments intensified. The most important discoveries were made, many icons were found and restored, and the picture of the historical development of icon painting became clearer.
However, the form of a high iconostasis lost its relevance; a low altar barrier turned out to be more in demand. This was influenced by local tradition Catholicism And Protestantism. If in the early period there were curtains and barriers in the temples of Western Europe, as in the East, then later they disappeared.
7. Art of Kievan Rus .
During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (late 10th-17th centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (in 988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted traditions ancient, primarily Greek, culture.
The process of eliminating paganism was spontaneous, but nevertheless attempts were made to quickly strengthen the new religion, to make it close and accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; Elements of popular deification of nature penetrated into the church, and some saints began to be assigned the role of old gods.
In pre-Mongol times, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv. The art of the pre-Mongol period is characterized by one distinctive feature - monumentalism of forms. Architecture rightfully occupies a special place in it. Medieval Russian art was determined by the Christian worldview.
It is quite possible that the Eastern Slavs had their own wooden chopped temples and that these temples were multi-domed.
Polydomes, therefore, were an original national feature of Russian architecture, which was then adopted by the art of Kievan Rus.
Came to Rus' with Christianity cross-domed shape of the temple– typical for Greek-Eastern Orthodox countries.
The most common masonry technique in the construction of temples in Kievan Rus was the so-called mixed –
“opus mixtum” - the walls were erected from thinner material than modern , plinth bricks and stone on pink lime mortar - tsemyanka. On the façade there was a row of bricks alternating with a row cemyanka, and that is why it seemed striped, which in itself was a decision for the decorative design of the exterior. The so-called masonry with a recessed row was often used: not all rows of bricks faced the façade, but every other, and the pink layer of cement was three times thicker than the brick layer. Stripes of pink cement and red brick on the facade, complexly profiled windows and niches - all together created an elegant, festive appearance of the building; no other decorative decoration was required.
Immediately after the adoption of Christianity, a temple was built in Kyiv Assumption of the Virgin Mary, so-called Tithe Church(989–996) - the first stone temple of Kievan Rus known to us. Tithe Church ( the prince allocated for her maintenance 1
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10
part of their income - hence the name) was destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion, so we can judge it only from the remains of the foundation, some decorative elements and written sources. It was a large 25-domed six-pillar church, surrounded on both sides by lowered galleries, which gave a pyramidal appearance to the entire temple (the western part had a complex, still not fully identified layout). Pyramidality and mass accumulation are features alien to Byzantine architecture; perhaps such gradation was inherent in pagan structures erected on the territory of the future Kievan Rus.
From the next, 11th century, several monuments have been preserved in Kyiv, and the most famous of them is Sofia Kyiv,
As in the Church of the Tithes, the interior of St. Sophia of Kyiv was unusually rich and picturesque: the well-lit altar rooms and the central domed space were decorated with mosaics, the pillars of the naves, the darker side rooms under the choirs, the walls were decorated with frescoes. The floors were also mosaic and slate.
The same craftsmen who built Sophia of Kyiv took part in the construction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, built in 1045–1050. under Prince Vladimir Yaroslavich in the center of the Kremlin. But the Novgorod Sophia is simpler and more laconic in its forms, as if akin to the Novgorod spirit. This is a 5-, not 13-domed, five-nave temple, with a wide gallery and only one staircase tower. Not only its exterior, which amazes with the nobility of its powerful forms, is stricter and more monolithic, but also its interior, its decoration is more modest, in which there were no mosaics, no marble, no slate. Another building material: instead of thin elegant plinth, local rough is used limestone. Brick is used only in vaults and arches. In many ways, the five-nave St. Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk (mid-11th century) is also close to Novgorod Sofia, the masonry technique of which is similar to that of Kyiv. Heavily rebuilt over time. Polotsk Sofia is now being successfully studied by researchers.
Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery(1073–1077, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich),
Church of the Annunciation on Gorodishche (1103),
St. Nicholas Cathedral on Yaroslav's Courtyard (1113),
Nativity Cathedral of the Anthony Monastery (1117) and St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery(1119),
In general, during the Kyiv era, the foundations of the Russian architectural tradition were laid and the features of future construction schools of various ancient Russian principalities of the era of feudal fragmentation were outlined.
Among the fine arts of Kievan Rus, the first place belongs to monumental painting - mosaics and frescoes. Russian masters adopted the system of painting a religious building, as well as the type of building itself, from the Byzantines. But, as in architecture, the processing of the Byzantine tradition begins early in Russian painting. Pagan folk art influenced the composition of the techniques of ancient Russian painting.
Painting was supposed, as in all medieval churches, to express the connection between the heavenly and the earthly. The main parts of the interior were decorated with mosaics made by Greek masters and their Russian students: the space under the dome and the altar.
The language of mosaics is simple and concise. The images are flat, which is typical for medieval art. The figures seem to be spread out on a golden background, further emphasizing their flatness, the forms are archaic, heavy, the gestures are conventional, the folds of clothing form an ornamental pattern. Strict rhythm, solemn canonical stillness of the figures of the saints. The painting of the dome space and apses was performed using the mosaic technique. The rest of the area is decorated with fresco, a cheaper and more accessible form of monumental painting. In Rus', this particular technique had a great future.
The mosaic and fresco cycle of paintings by Sophia of Kyiv is a strictly thought-out and unified system in design, giving a picturesque representation of the religious doctrine, a system in which each figure and each scene helps to reveal the meaning of the whole. The heavenly hierarchy, starting with Christ in the dome and ending with the figures of saints in the apse, was presented as a semblance of earthly connections and subordination.
In addition to the mosaics of the Kyiv Sophia, mosaics of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery have been preserved, similar in character to those of Kyiv, but already having other features that indicate a change in artistic views and aesthetic ideals over the past 60–70 years. In the scene of the Eucharist, the figures of the apostles are depicted from complex angles, the movements are freer and more lively, the faces are not as ecstatic as in the Kyiv mosaic. Accordingly, the expressive language of mosaic becomes different: less importance is now attached to the line and contour, the form is constructed differently, although the linear principle still prevails.
The figures of Konstantin and Elena in the Martiryevskaya porch of Novgorod Sofia were painted in a rare technique “al secco” (“dry”, i.e. on dry plaster, on the finest lime lining), with graphic grace. In the 11th century, undoubtedly, many icons were created; we even know the name of one Russian master, Alimpiy, who lived at the end of the 11th century.
A special section of ancient Russian painting is the art of miniatures of handwritten books, which in themselves represented a complex and refined form of art. Written on parchment - calfskin - the books were decorated with miniatures, headpieces and initials. In the miniatures of manuscripts of that time there are also portrait images.
Applied and decorative arts played a huge role in the life of Kievan Rus, in which the images of pagan mythology proved especially tenacious. Carved ships, wooden utensils, furniture, gold-embroidered fabrics and jewelry made by skillful hands of craftsmen are imbued with the poetry of mythological images. Items found in the treasures (bracelets, rings, hanging rings, tiaras, necklaces) are decorated with images of animals that once had symbolic meaning (ritual, amulet, etc.). Old Russian craftsmen were skilled in various types of techniques: filigree (the so-called art of filigree, products made from thin wire), grain (small metal grains soldered onto the product), niello (silver products were decorated with an alloy of black powder: the relief was preserved in silver, and the background was filled with niello), especially in the most exquisite form of art - enamel, i.e. technique of enamels, champlevé and cloisonné. Enamel was most often combined with gold, and silver with niello.
In the art of Ancient Rus', round sculpture was not developed. She resembled a pagan idol, a pagan “boob,” and therefore was not popular. But Russian craftsmen transferred their rich experience as woodcarvers to small plastic products, to the art of altar barriers, to stone carving, and to casting (in particular, coins).
8. Art of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (XI-XIII centuries)
The art of the Vladimir land acquires its distinctive features and reaches its peak under Yuri’s son, Andrei Bogolyubsky.
Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158–1161), a majestic six-pillar temple made of large slabs of local white limestone tightly fitted to each other.
In memory of the successful campaign of the Suzdal troops against the Volga Bulgars, one of the most poetic ancient Russian churches was founded - the Intercession on the Nerl (1165). It displays all the features characteristic of Vladimir architecture: slit-like windows, perspective portals, an arcature belt along the facades and apse cornice. But unlike the Assumption Cathedral, it is all directed upward, and vertical lines predominate in it.
Applied art was also at a high level; just remember the copper western gate of the already mentioned Suzdal Cathedral, painted with “burnt gold” (a complex technique of so-called fire gilding, “golden touching”, reminiscent of an etching in graphics), or bracelets of Vladimir treasures, in which the design ornament (for example, a double contour of a figure) finds an analogue in the plasticity of cathedrals.
We can judge the monumental painting of this school from the surviving fragments of the Last Judgment scene of the Demetrius Cathedral (late 12th century), the paintings of which, according to researchers, were performed by both Russian and Byzantine masters. Among the easel works, one can point out the large-sized “Yaroslavl Oranta” (more precisely, “Our Lady Oranta - Great Panagia”, Tretyakov Gallery) - a work whose festive coloring echoes the Oranta of Kyiv Sofia, but this is only an external resemblance. Over the course of a century, Vladimir-Suzdal art has gone from the austere simplicity of early churches, like the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha and the Church of the Savior in Pereslavl-Zalessky, to the refined and refined elegance of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev.
On such a high note, at such a level of skill, this development was interrupted by the invasion of Batu’s hordes. The Vladimir-Suzdal land was destined to be the first to take the blow. But the art of the principality was not completely destroyed; it managed to exert a decisive influence on the culture of the emerging Moscow, and this is the enormous historical significance of the art of the Vladimir-Suzdal land as a whole.
9. Art of the northwestern principalities of the XIV-XVI centuries.
Only in Novgorod and Pskov, which, although they did not know the yoke itself, paid tribute to the Baskaks sent there, did artistic life still continue. But even for them, who escaped the horrors of the Mongol invasion, in isolation from other cities and lands, it was not easy to preserve and develop their cultural traditions and remain a connecting link between the pre- and post-Mongol stages of development.
The revival of cities and the revival of trade began in the middle of the 14th century. The need for defense consolidated Russian forces, contributed greatly to the unification of Russian lands, and accelerated the process of formation of the Russian state and the formation of the Russian nationality.
In this process, the dominant place undividedly passed to Moscow. And only at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. The unification of Russian lands under the leadership of Moscow is completed. Moscow and Tver, which grew up as part of the Vladimir Principality, naturally act as heirs to the Vladimir-Suzdal traditions in art. Things were somewhat different in the north-west of Rus'. Novgorod and Pskov, which resisted unification under the rule of Moscow, at this time relied on their own artistic experience.
In the XIV–XV centuries. Novgorod churches, as before, were erected by order of boyars, clergy, rich artisans, and merchants. The walls are built entirely from local, poorly hewn, rough stone, and only brick is used in the vaults, drums and window openings.
The classical type of temple, simple and structurally clear, was created in the second half of the 14th century, and there is no analogue to it in the architecture of other countries. Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1374), large and slender. Their distinctive feature is the exterior decor, in which the Novgorodians have always been very restrained, and the covering along the so-called multi-blade curve. Therefore, the facade is decorated with such details as decorative niches, eyebrows above the windows, icon cases, circles, crosses, an ornamental belt under the drum windows (“curbs” and “towns”) and on the apse (Church of Fyodor Stratelates).
In parallel with new construction in Novgorod in the 15th century. monuments of the 12th century were reconstructed. Novgorodians in 1433 directly turned to German masters.
At the end of the 15th century. Moscow subjugated Novgorod, resorting to the most brutal measures. The veche bell - a symbol of Novgorod independence - was removed and taken out of the city, and from then on a poetic legend arose that it broke into thousands of “Valdai bells” in Valdai when it was being taken to Moscow. The new customer dictated new tastes. The independent development of Novgorod architecture ended.
The geographical position of Pskov and the constant danger of attack by the Livonian Order determined the development in Pskov at that time mainly of defensive architecture and the construction of fortresses. The stone walls of the Pskov detinets (Krom) and the “Dovmontov city” attached to it are growing. By the 16th century The fortress walls of Pskov stretch for 9 km.
The independent construction school in Pskov developed later than the Novgorod one.
One can speak of complete independence only from the moment when the Pskovites erected the Trinity Church in the center of the Kremlin on the foundations of an old collapsed church of the 12th century. The 15th century was the time of the most rapid flowering of the Pskov architectural school. Chronicles report the construction of 22 stone churches in Pskov. The church was equipped with extensions, its appearance was enlivened by porches, porches, and purely Pskov thick and short pillars. Due to the plasticity and unevenness of the walls caused by the building material itself, the Pskov churches are close to those of Novgorod, but they also have their own unique originality, in which the picturesque location of the Pskov churches near the river (there are two of them in Pskov: Pskova and Velikaya), near the ford, plays an important role. on the hill, which is reflected in the names [for example, the Church of Cosmas and Damian from Primostje (1462, the top was rebuilt in the 16th century)].
The 14th century is the time of brilliant flowering of Novgorod monumental painting. At this time, Novgorod already had its own local painting school. In addition, at the end of the century, local craftsmen experienced the influence of the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek (30s of the 14th century - after 1405).
In Novgorod in 1378, by order of boyar Vasily Danilovich Moshkov and the residents of Ilinaya Street, he painted the Church of the Transfiguration.
Feofan’s painting was unique: wide strokes of the brush, precise, confidently placed highlights, highlights that sculpt the form. The paintings of Theophanes the Greek are almost monochrome, red-brown and yellow ochres, the shades of which provide, however, an extraordinary colorful variety. Passion and internal tension, the spiritual energy of images are achieved by the most lapidary visual means. Feofan achieves extraordinary laconicism due to the fact that he avoids sharp contour and internal lines that diminish the form. It is modeled by spaces of a wide variety of patterns: spots-circles, “commas”, etc. These seemingly carelessly thrown strokes merge together at a distance, creating the illusion of a convex shape and the image of a living person. Feofan’s painting, so expressively individual, so free from canons, at the same time bears the influence of Novgorod art itself.
Finally, long before Theophanes, in 1363 the painting of the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field was completed. These are mainly scenes from the life of Christ and Mary. The expression of images here was not inferior to Feofanov’s, but it was achieved by different techniques. The murals were made by some wonderful Novgorod master, whose name we do not know. This point of view is supported by the coloring of the paintings: festively bright, juxtaposed with sonorous red, green, blue, and purple. The drawing is striking in its expressiveness. The figures are presented in rapid movement, in a passionate outburst.
10. Art of the Moscow State of the 16th century.
Formation of a unified Russian state.
Liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
Completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.
Strengthening secular and democratic elements.
The influence of the church.
By the 15th century, a new stage in the development of Russian architecture: improvement of urban crafts, an increase in financial resources, the spread of brick replaced white stone, the formation of an all-Russian architectural style, simplicity of designs, increased external decorativeness, Moscow is an all-Russian cultural center (Italian specialists, Italian revival), the Moscow Kremlin was completely rebuilt , Moscow is a role model, the tent style is a truly Russian form - the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century; regulation of painting.
Jewelry art, casting, bone carving, weaving.
Iconography (painting) “Boris and Gleb”, “Parable of the Blind and Lame Man”
Features of icon painting: 1. Spatial clear composition 2. Refined. The beauty of lines and silhouette. 3. Complex elegant color. Theophanes the Greek his features 1 passion, impulse, doubt. 2. Solid dark color. Light from within the characters. Andrey Rublev Topics: unity of the loving (father), beloved (son). Victims. Infinity and beauty of the divine world
11. Old Russian icon painters.
